Prelude to Foundation Chapter 13 Heatsink

AMARYL, YUGO-†¦ A mathematician who, next to Hari Seldon himself, may be considered most responsible for working out the details of psychohistory. It was he who†¦ †¦ Yet the conditions under which he began life are almost more dramatic than his mathematical accomplishments. Born into the hopeless poverty of the lower classes of Dahl, a sector of ancient Trantor, he might have passed his life in utter obscurity were it not for the fact that Seldon, quite by accident, encountered him in the course of†¦ Encyclopedia Galactica 61. The Emperor of all the Galaxy felt weary-physically weary. His lips ached from the gracious smile he had had to place on his face at careful intervals. His neck was stiff from having inclined his head this way and that in a feigned show of interest. His ears pained from having to listen. His whole body throbbed from having to rise and to sit and to turn and to hold out his hand and to nod. It was merely a state function where one had to meet Mayors and Viceroys and Ministers and their wives or husbands from here and there in Trantor and (worse) from here and there in the Galaxy. There were nearly a thousand present, all in costumes that varied from the ornate to the downright outlandish, and he had had to listen to a babble of different accents made the worse by an effort to speak the Emperor's Galactic as spoken at the Galactic University. Worst of all, the Emperor had had to remember to avoid making commitments of substance, while freely applying the lotion of words without substan ce. All had been recorded, sight and sound-very discreetly-and Eto Demerzel would go over it to see if Cleon, First of that Name, had behaved himself. That, of course, was only the way that the Emperor put it to himself. Demerzel would surely say that he was merely collecting data on any unintentional self-revelation on the pan of the guests. And perhaps he was. Fortunate Demerzel! The Emperor could not leave the Palace and its extensive grounds, while Demerzel could range the Galaxy if he wished. The Emperor was always on display, always accessible, always forced to deal with visitors, from the important to the merely intrusive. Demerzel remained anonymous and never allowed himself to be seen inside the Palace grounds. He remained merely a fearsome name and an invisible (and therefore the more frightening) presence. The Emperor was the Inside Man with all the trappings and emoluments of power. Demerzel was the Outside Man, with nothing evident, not even a formal title, but with his fingers and mind probing everywhere and asking for no reward for his tireless labors but one-the reality of power. It amused the Emperor-in a macabre sort of way-to consider that, at any moment, without warning, with a manufactured excuse or with none at all, he could have Demerzel arrested, imprisoned, exiled, tortured, or executed. After all, in these annoying centuries of constant unrest, the Emperor might have difficulty in exerting his will over the various planets of the Empire, even over the various sectors of Trantor-with their rabble of local executives and legislatures that he was forced to deal with in a maze of interlocking decrees, protocols, commitments, treaties, and general interstellar legalities-but at least his powers remained absolute over the Palace and its grounds. And yet Cleon knew that his dreams of power were useless. Demerzel had served his father and Cleon could not remember a time when he did not turn to Demerzel for everything. It was Demerzel who knew it all, devised it all, did it all. More than that, it was on Demerzel that anything that went wrong could be blamed . The Emperor himself remained above criticism and had nothing to fear-except, of course, palace coups and assassination by his nearest and dearest. It was to prevent this, above all, that he depended upon Demerzel. Emperor Cleon felt a tiny shudder at the thought of trying to do without Demerzel. There had been Emperors who had ruled personally, who had had a series of Chiefs of Staff of no talent, who had had incompetents serving in the post and had kept them-and somehow they had gotten along for a time and after a fashion. But Cleon could not. He needed Demerzel. In fact, now that the thought of assassination had come to him-and, in view of the modern history of the Empire, it was inevitable that it had come to him-he could see that getting rid of Demerzel was quite impossible. It couldn't be done. No matter how cleverly he, Cleon, would attempt to arrange it, Demerzel (he was sure) would anticipate the move somehow, would know it was on its way, and would arrange, with far superior cleverness, a palace coup. Cleon would be dead before Demerzel could possibly be taken away in chains and there would simply be another Emperor that Demerzel would serve-and dominate. Or would Demerzel tire of the game and make himself Emperor? Never! The habit of anonymity was too strong in him. If Demerzel exposed himself to the world, then his powers, his wisdom, his luck (whatever it was) would surely desert him. Cleon was convinced of that. He felt it to be beyond dispute. So while he behaved himself, Cleon was safe. With no ambitions of his own, Demerzel would serve him faithfully. And now here was Demerzel, dressed so severely and simply that it made Cleon uneasily conscious of the useless ornamentation of his robes of state, now thankfully removed with the aid of two valets. Naturally, it would not be until he was alone and in dishabille that Demerzel would glide into view. â€Å"Demerzel,† said the Emperor of all the Galaxy, â€Å"I am tired!† â€Å"State functions are tiring, Sire,† murmured Demerzel. â€Å"Then must I have them every evening?† â€Å"Not every evening, but they are essential. It gratifies others to see you and to be taken note of by you. It helps keep the Empire running smoothly.† â€Å"The Empire used to be kept running smoothly by power,† said the Emperor somberly. â€Å"Now it must be kept running by a smile, a wave of the hand, a murmured word, and a medal or a plaque.† â€Å"If all that keeps the peace, Sire, there is much to be said for it. And your reign proceeds well.† â€Å"You know why-because I have you at my side. My only real gift is that I am aware of your importance.† He looked at Demerzel slyly. â€Å"My son need not be my heir. He is not a talented boy. What if I make you my heir?† Demerzel said freezingly, â€Å"Sire, that is unthinkable. I would not usurp the throne. I would not steal it from your rightful heir. Besides, if I have displeased you, punish me justly. Surely, nothing I have done or could possibly do deserves the punishment of being made Emperor.† Cleon laughed. â€Å"For that true assessment of the value of the Imperial throne, Demerzel, I abandon any thought of punishing you. Come now, let us talk about something. I would sleep, but I am not yet ready for the ceremonies with which they put me to bed. Let us talk.† â€Å"About what, Sire?† â€Å"About anything.-About that mathematician and his psychohistory. I think about him every once in a while, you know. I thought of him at dinner tonight. I wondered: What if a psychohistorical analysis would predict a method for making it possible to be an Emperor without endless ceremony?† â€Å"I somehow think, Sire, that even the cleverest psychohistorian could not manage that.† â€Å"Well, tell me the latest. Is he still hiding among those peculiar baldheads of Mycogen? You promised you would winkle him out of there.† â€Å"So I did, Sire, and I moved in that direction, but I regret that I must say that I failed.† â€Å"Failed?† The Emperor allowed himself to frown. â€Å"I don't like that.† â€Å"Nor I, Sire. I planned to have the mathematician be encouraged to commit some blasphemous act-such acts are easy to commit in Mycogen, especially for an outsider-one that would call for severe punishment. The mathematician would then be forced to appeal to the Emperor and, as a result, we would get him. I planned it at the cost of insignificant concessions on our part-important to Mycogen, totally unimportant to us-and I meant to play no direct role in the arrangement. It was to be handled subtly.† â€Å"I dare say,† said Cleon, â€Å"but it failed. Did the Mayor of Mycogen â€Å"He is called the High Elder, Sire.† â€Å"Do not quibble over titles. Did this High Elder refuse?† â€Å"On the contrary, Sire, he agreed and the mathematician, Seldon, fell into the trap neatly.† â€Å"Well then?† â€Å"He was allowed to leave unharmed.† â€Å"Why?† said Cleon indignantly. â€Å"Of this I am not certain, Sire, but I suspect we were outbid.† â€Å"By whom? By the Mayor of Wye?† â€Å"Possibly, Sire, but I doubt that. I have Wye under constant surveillance. If they had gained the mathematician, I would know it by now.† The Emperor was not merely frowning. He was clearly enraged. â€Å"Demerzel, this is bad. I am greatly displeased. A failure like this makes me wonder if you are perhaps not the man you once were. What measures shall we take against Mycogen for this clear defiance of the Emperor's wishes?† Demerzel bowed low in recognition of the storm unleashed, but he said in steely tones, â€Å"It would be a mistake to move against Mycogen now, Sire. The disruption that would follow would play into the hands of Wye.† â€Å"But we must do something.† â€Å"Perhaps not, Sire. It is not as bad as it may seem.† â€Å"How can it be not as bad as it seems?† â€Å"You'll remember, Sire, that this mathematician was convinced that psychohistory was impractical.† â€Å"Of course I remember that, but that doesn't matter, does it? For our purposes?† â€Å"Perhaps not. But if it were to become practical, it would serve our purposes to an infinitely great extent, Sire. And from what I have been able to find out, the mathematician is now attempting to make psychohistory practical. His blasphemous attempt in Mycogen was, I understand, part of an attempt at solving the problem of psychohistory. In that case, it may pay us, Sire, to leave him to himself. It will serve us better to pick him up when he is closer to his goal or has reached it.† â€Å"Not if Wye gets him first.† â€Å"That, I shall see to it, will not happen.† â€Å"In the same way that you succeeded in winkling the mathematician out of Mycogen just now?† â€Å"I will not make a mistake the next time, Sire,† said Demerzel coldly. The Emperor said, â€Å"Demerzel, you had better not. I will not tolerate another mistake in this respect.† And then he added pettishly, â€Å"I think I shall not sleep tonight after all.† 62. Jirad Tisalver of the Dahl Sector was short. The top of his head came up only to Hari Seldon's nose. He did not seem to take that to heart, however. He had handsome, even features, was given to smiling, and sported a thick black mustache and crisply curling black hair. He lived, with his wife and a half-grown daughter, in an apartment of seven small rooms, kept meticulously clean, but almost bare of furnishings. Tisalver said, â€Å"I apologize, Master Seldon and Mistress Venabili, that I cannot give you the luxury to which you must be accustomed, but Dahl is a poor sector and I am not even among the better-off among our people.† â€Å"The more reason,† responded Seldon, â€Å"that we must apologize to you for placing the burden of our presence upon you.† â€Å"No burden, Master Seldon. Master Hummin has arranged to pay us generously for your use of our humble quarters and the credits would be welcome even if you were not-and you are.† Seldon remembered Hummin's parting words when they finally arrived in Dahl. â€Å"Seldon† he had said, â€Å"this is the third place I've arranged as sanctuary. The first two were notoriously beyond the reach of the Imperium, which might well have served to attract their attention; after all, they were logical places for you. This one is different. It is poor, unremarkable, and, as a matter of fact, unsafe in some ways. It is not a natural refuge for you, so that the Emperor and his Chief of Staff may not think to turn their eyes in this direction. Would you mind staying out of trouble this time, then?† â€Å"I will try, Hummin,† said Seldon, a little offended. â€Å"Please be aware that the trouble is not of my seeking. I am trying to learn what may well take me thirty lifetimes to learn if I am to have the slightest chance of organizing psychohistory.† â€Å"I understand,† said Hummin. â€Å"Your efforts at learning brought you to Upperside in Streeling and to the Elders' aerie in Mycogen and to who can guess where in Dahl. As for you, Dr. Venabili, I know you've been trying to take care of Seldon, but you must try harder. Get it fixed in your head that he is the most important person on Trantor-or in the Galaxy, for that matter-and that he must be kept secure at any cost.† â€Å"I will continue to do my best,† said Dors stiffly. â€Å"And as for your host family, they have their peculiarities, but they are essentially good people with whom I have dealt before. Try not to get them in trouble either.† But Tisalver, at least, did not seem to anticipate trouble of any kind from his new tenants and his expressed pleasure at the company he now had-quite apart from the rent credits he would be getting-seemed quite sincere. He had never been outside Dahl and his appetite for tales of distant places was enormous. His wife too, bowing and smiling, would listen and their daughter, with a finger in her mouth, would allow one eye to peep from behind the door. It was usually after dinner, when the entire family assembled, that Seldon and Dors were expected to talk of the outside world. The food was plentiful enough, but it was bland and often tough. So soon after the tangy food of Mycogen, it was all but inedible. The â€Å"table† was a long shelf against one wall and they ate standing up. Gentle questioning by Seldon elicited the fact that this was the usual situation among Dahlites as a whole and was not due to unusual poverty. Of course, Mistress Tisalver explained, there were those with high government jobs in Dahl who were prone to adopt all kinds of effete customs like chairs-she called them â€Å"body shelves†-but this was looked down upon by the solid middle class. Much as they disapproved of unnecessary luxury, though, the Tisalvers loved hearing about it, listening with a virtual storm of tongue-clicking when told of mattresses lifted on legs, of ornate chests and wardrobes, and of a superfluity of tableware. They listened also to a description of Mycogenian customs, while Jirad Tisalver stroked his own hair complacently and made it quite obvious that he would as soon think of emasculation as of depilation. Mistress Tisalver was furious at any mention of female subservience and flatly refused to believe that the Sisters accepted it tranquilly. They seized most, however, on Seldon's. casual reference to the Imperial grounds. When, upon questioning, it turned out that Seldon had actually seen and spoken to the Emperor, a blanket of awe enveloped the family. It took a while before they dared ask questions and Seldon found that he could not satisfy them. He had not, after all, seen much of the grounds and even less of the Palace interior. That disappointed the Tisalvers and they were unremitting in their attempts to elicit more. And, having heard of Seldon's Imperial adventure, they found it hard to believe Dors's assertion that, for her part, she had never been anywhere in the Imperial grounds. Most of all, they rejected Seldon's casual comment that the Emperor had talked and behaved very much as any ordinary human being would. That seemed utterly impossible to the Tisalvers. After three evenings of this, Seldon found himself tiring. He had, at first, welcomed the chance to do nothing for a while (during the day, at least) but view some of the history book-films that Dors recommended. The Tisalvers turned over their book-viewer to their guests during the day with good grace, though the little girl seemed unhappy and was sent over to a neighbor's apartment to use theirs for her homework. â€Å"It doesn't help,† Seldon said restlessly in the security of his room after he had piped in some music to discourage eavesdropping. â€Å"I can see your fascination with history, but it's all endless detail. It's a mountainous heap-no, a Galactic heap-of data in which I can't see the basic organization.† â€Å"I dare say,† said Dors, â€Å"that there must have been a time when human beings saw no organization in the stars in the sky, but eventually they discovered the Galactic structure.† â€Å"And I'm sure that took generations, not weeks. There must have been a time when physics seemed a mass of unrelated observations before the central natural laws were discovered and that took generations.-And what of the Tisalvers?† â€Å"What of them? I think they're being very nice.† â€Å"They're curious.† â€Å"Of course they are. Wouldn't you be if you were in their place?† â€Å"But is it just curiosity? They seem to be ferociously interested in my meeting with the Emperor.† Dors seemed impatient. â€Å"Again†¦ its only natural. Wouldn't you be-if the situation was reversed?† â€Å"It makes me nervous.† â€Å"Hummin brought us here.† â€Å"Yes, but he's not perfect. He brought me to the University and I was maneuvered Upperside. He brought us to Sunmaster Fourteen, who entrapped us. You know he did. Twice bitten, at least once shy. I'm tired of being questioned.† â€Å"Then turn the tables, Hari. Aren't you interested in Dahl?† â€Å"Of course. What do you know about it to begin with?† â€Å"Nothing. It's just one of more than eight hundred sectors and I've only been on Trantor a little over two years.† â€Å"Exactly. And there are twenty-five million other worlds and I've been on this problem only a little over two months.-I tell you. I want to go back to Helicon and take up a study of the mathematics of turbulence, which was my Ph.D. problem, and forget I ever saw-or thought I saw-that turbulence gave an insight into human society.† But that evening he said to Tisalver, â€Å"But you know, Master Tisalver, you've never told me what you do, the nature of your work.† â€Å"Me?† Tisalver placed his fingers on his chest, which was covered by the simple white T-shirt with nothing underneath, which seemed to be the standard male uniform in Dahl. â€Å"Nothing much. I work at the local holovision station in programming. It's very dull, but it's a living.† â€Å"And it's respectable,† said Mistress Tisalver. â€Å"It means he doesn't have to work in the heatsinks.† â€Å"The heatsinks?† said Dors, lifting her light eyebrows and managing to look fascinated. â€Å"Oh well,† said Tisalver, â€Å"that's what Dahl is best known for. It isn't much, but forty billion people on Trantor need energy and we supply a lot of it. We don't get appreciated, but I'd like to see some of the fancy sectors do without it.† Seldon looked confused. â€Å"Doesn't Trantor get its energy from solar power stations in orbit?† â€Å"Some,† said Tisalver, â€Å"and some from nuclear fusion stations out on the islands and some from microfusion motors and some from wind stations Upperside, but half†-he raised a finger in emphasis and his face looked unusually grave-â€Å"half comes from the heatsinks. There are heatsinks in lots of places, but none-none-as rich as those in Dahl. Are you serious that you don't know about the heatsinks? You sit there and stare at me.† Dors said quickly, â€Å"We are Outworlders, you know.† (She had almost said ‘tribespeople,' but had caught herself in time.) â€Å"Especially Dr. Seldon. He's only been on Trantor a couple of months.† â€Å"Really?† said Mistress Tisalver. She was a trifle shorter than her husband, was plump without quite being fat, had her dark hair drawn tightly back into a bun, and possessed rather beautiful dark eyes. Like her husband, she appeared to be in her thirties. (After a period in Mycogen, not actually long in duration but intense, it struck Dors as odd to have a woman enter the conversation at will. How quickly modes and manners establish themselves, she thought, and made a mental note to mention that to Seldon-one more item for his psychohistory.) â€Å"Oh yes,† she said. â€Å"Dr. Seldon is from Helicon.† Mistress Tisalver registered polite ignorance. â€Å"And where might that be?† Dors said, â€Å"Why, it's-† She turned to Seldon. â€Å"Where is it, Hari?† Seldon looked abashed. â€Å"To tell you the truth, I don't think I could locate it very easily on a Galactic model without looking up the coordinates. All I can say is that it's on the other side of the central black hole from Trantor and getting there by hypership is rather a chore.† Mistress Tisalver said, â€Å"I don't think Jirad and I will ever be on a hypership.† â€Å"Someday, Casilia,† said Tisalver cheerfully, â€Å"maybe we will. But tell us about Helicon, Master Seldon.† Seldon shook his head. â€Å"To me that would be dull. Its just a world, like any other. Only Trantor is different from all the rest. There are no heatsinks on Helicon-or probably anywhere else-except Trantor. Tell me about them.† (â€Å"Only Trantor is different from all the rest.† The sentence repeated itself in Seldon's mind and for a moment he grasped at it, and for some reason Dors's hand-on-thigh story suddenly recurred to him, but Tisalver was speaking and it passed out of Seldon's mind as quickly as it had entered.) Tisalver said, â€Å"If you really want to know about heatsinks, I can show you.† He turned to his wife. â€Å"Casilia, would you mind if tomorrow evening I take Master Seldon to the heatsinks.† â€Å"And me,† said Dors quickly. â€Å"And Mistress Venabili?† Mistress Tisalver frowned and said sharply, â€Å"I don't think it would be a good idea. Our visitors would find it dull.† â€Å"I don't think so, Mistress Tisalver,† said Seldon ingratiatingly. â€Å"We would very much like to see the heatsinks. We would be delighted if you would join us too†¦ and your little daughter-if she wants to come.† â€Å"To the heatsinks?† said Mistress Tisalver, stiffening. â€Å"It's no place at all for a decent woman.† Seldon felt embarrassed at his gaffe. â€Å"I meant no harm, Mistress Tisalver.† â€Å"No offense,† said Tisalver. â€Å"Casilia thinks it's beneath us and so it is, but as long as I don't work there, it's no distress merely to visit and show it to guests. But it is uncomfortable and I would never get Casilia to dress properly.† They got up from their crouching positions. Dahlite â€Å"chairs† were merely molded plastic seats on small wheels and they cramped Seldon's knees terribly and seemed to wiggle at his least body movement. The Tisalvers, however, had mastered the art of sitting firmly and rose without trouble and without needing to use their arms for help as Seldon had to. Dors also got up without trouble and Seldon once again marveled at her natural grace. Before they parted to their separate rooms for the night, Seldon said to Dors, â€Å"Are you sure you know nothing about heatsinks? Mistress Tisalver makes them seem unpleasant.† â€Å"They can't be that unpleasant or Tisalver wouldn't suggest taking us on tour. Let's be content to be surprised.† 63. Tisalver said, â€Å"You'll need proper clothing.† Mistress Tisalver sniffed markedly in the background. Cautiously, Seldon, thinking of kirtles with vague distress, said, â€Å"What do you mean by proper clothing?† â€Å"Something light, such as I wear. A T-shirt, very short sleeves, loose slacks, loose underpants, foot socks, open sandals. I have it all for you.† â€Å"Good. It doesn't sound bad.† â€Å"As for Mistress Venabili, I have the same. I hope it fits.† The clothes Tisalver supplied each of them (which were his own) fit fine-if a bit snugly. When they were ready, they bade Mistress Tisalver good-bye and she, with a resigned if still disapproving air, watched them from the doorway as they set off. It was early evening and there was an attractive twilight glow above. It was clear that Dahl's lights would soon be winking on. The temperature was mild and there were virtually no vehicles to be seen; everyone was walking. In the distance was the ever-present hum of an Expressway and the occasional glitter of its lights could be easily seen. The Dahlites, Seldon noted, did not seem to be walking toward any particular destination. Rather, there seemed to be a promenade going on, a walking for pleasure. Perhaps, if Dahl was an impoverished sector, as Tisalver had implied, inexpensive entertainment was at a premium and what was as pleasant-and as inexpensive-as an evening stroll? Seldon felt himself easing automatically into the gait of an aimless stroll himself and felt the warmth of friendliness all around him. People greeted each other as they passed and exchanged a few words. Black mustaches of different shape and thickness flashed everywhere and seemed a requisite for the Dahlite male, as ubiquitous as the bald heads of the Mycogenian Brothers. It was an evening rite, a way of making sure that another day had passed safely and that one's friends were still well and happy. And, it soon became apparent, Dors caught every eye. In the twilight glow, the ruddiness of her hair had deepened, but it stood out against the sea of black-haired heads (except for the occasional gray) like a gold coin winking its way across a pile of coal. â€Å"This is very pleasant,† said Seldon. â€Å"It is,† said Tisalver. â€Å"Ordinarily, I'd be walking with my wife and she'd be in her element. There is no one for a kilometer around whom she doesn't know by name, occupation, and interrelationships. I can't do that. Right now, half the people who greet me†¦ I couldn't tell you their names. But, in any case, we mustn't creep along too slowly. We must get to the elevator. It's a busy world on the lower levels.† They were on the elevator going down when Dors said, â€Å"I presume, Master Tisalver, that the heatsinks are places where the internal heat of Trantor is being used to produce steam that will turn turbines and produce electricity.† â€Å"Oh, no. Highly efficient large-scale thermopiles produce electricity directly. Don't ask me the details, please. I'm just a holovision programmer. In fact, don't ask anyone the details down there. The whole thing is one big black box. It works, but no one knows how.† â€Å"What if something goes wrong?† â€Å"It doesn't usually, but if it does, some expert comes over from somewhere. Someone who understands computers. The whole thing is highly computerized, of course.† The elevator came to a halt and they stepped out. A blast of heat struck them. â€Å"It's hot,† said Seldon quite unnecessarily. â€Å"Yes, it is,† said Tisalver. â€Å"That's what makes Dahl so valuable as an energy source. The magma layer is nearer the surface here than it is anywhere else in the world. So you have to work in the heat.† â€Å"How about air-conditioning?† said Dors. â€Å"There is air-conditioning, but it's a matter of expense. We ventilate and dehumidify and cool, but if we go too far, then we're using up too much energy and the whole process becomes too expensive.† Tisalver stopped at a door at which he signaled. It opened to a blast of cooler air and he muttered, â€Å"We ought to be able to get someone to help show us around and he'll control the remarks that Mistress Venabili will otherwise be the victim of†¦ at least from the men.† â€Å"Remarks won't embarrass me,† said Dors. â€Å"They will embarrass me,† said Tisalver. A young man walked out of the office and introduced himself as Hano Linder. He resembled Tisalver quite closely, but Seldon decided that until he got used to the almost universal shortness, swarthiness, black hair, and luxuriant mustaches, he would not be able to see individual differences easily. Lindor said, â€Å"I'll be glad to show you around for what there is to see. It's not one of your spectaculars, you know.† He addressed them all, but his eyes were fixed on Dors. He said, â€Å"It's not going to be comfortable. I suggest we remove our shirts.† â€Å"It's nice and cool in here,† said Seldon. â€Å"Of course, but that's because we're executives. Rank has its privileges. Out there we can't maintain air-conditioning at this level. That's why they get paid more than I do. In fact, those are the best-paying jobs in Dahl, which is the only reason we get people to work down here. Even so, it's getting harder to get heatsinkers all the time.† He took a deep breath. â€Å"Okay, out into the soup.† He removed his own shirt and tucked it into his waistband. Tisalver did the same and Seldon followed suit. Linder glanced at Dors and said, â€Å"For your own comfort, Mistress, but it's not compulsory.† â€Å"That's all right,† said Dors and removed her shirt. Her brassiere was white, unpadded, and showed considerable cleavage. â€Å"Mistress,† said Lindor, â€Å"That's not-† He thought a moment, then shrugged and said, â€Å"All right. We'll get by.† At first, Seldon was aware only of computers and machinery, huge pipes, flickering lights, and flashing screens. The overall light was comparatively dim, though individual sections of machinery were illuminated. Seldon looked up into the almost-darkness. He said, â€Å"Why isn't it better lit?† â€Å"It's lit well enough†¦ where it should be,† said Lindor. His voice was well modulated and he spoke quickly, but a little harshly. â€Å"Overall illumination is kept low for psychological reasons. Too bright is translated, in the mind, into heat. Complaints go up when we turn up the lights, even when the temperature is made to go down.† Dors said, â€Å"It seems to be well computerized. I should think the operations could be turned over to computers altogether. This sort of environment is made for artificial intelligence.† â€Å"Perfectly right,† said Lindor, â€Å"but neither can we take a chance on any failures. We need people on the spot if anything goes wrong. A malfunctioning computer can raise problems up to two thousand kilometers away.† â€Å"So can human error. Isn't that so?† said Seldon. â€Å"Oh. yes, but with both people and computers on the job, computer error can be more quickly tracked down and corrected by people and, conversely, human error can be more quickly corrected by computers. What it amounts to is that nothing serious can happen unless human error and computer error take place simultaneously. And that hardly ever happens.† â€Å"Hardly ever, but not never, eh?† said Seldon. â€Å"Almost never, but not never. Computers aren't what they used to be and neither are people.† â€Å"That's the way it always seems,† said Seldon, laughing slightly. â€Å"No, no. I'm not talking memory. I'm not talking good old days. I'm talking statistics.† At this, Seldon recalled Hummin talking of the degeneration of the times. â€Å"See what I mean?† said Lindor, his voice dropping. â€Å"There's a bunch of people, at the C-3 level from the looks of them, drinking. Not one of them is at his or her post.† â€Å"What are they drinking?† asked Dors. â€Å"Special fluids for replacing electrolyte loss. Fruit juice.† â€Å"You can't blame them, can you?† said Dors indignantly. â€Å"In this dry heat, you would have to drink.† â€Å"Do you know how long a skilled C-3 can spin out a drink? And there's nothing to be done about it either. If we give them five-minute breaks for drinks and stagger them so they don't all congregate in a group, you simply stir up a rebellion.† They were approaching the group now. There were men and women (Dahl seemed to be a more or less amphisexual society) and both sexes were shirtless. The women wore devices that might be called brassieres, but they were strictly functional. They served to lift the breasts in order to improve ventilation and limit perspiration, but covered nothing. Dors said in an aside to Seldon, â€Å"That makes sense, Hari. I'm soaking wet there.† â€Å"Take off your brassiere, then,† said Seldon. â€Å"I won't lift a finger to stop you.† â€Å"Somehow,† said Dors, â€Å"I guessed you wouldn't.† She left her brassiere where it was. They were approaching the congregation of people-about a dozen of them. Dors said, â€Å"If any of them make rude remarks, I shall survive.† â€Å"Thank you,† said Lindor. â€Å"I cannot promise they won't.-But I'll have to introduce you. If they get the idea that you two are inspectors and in my company, they'll become unruly. Inspectors are supposed to poke around on their own without anyone from management overseeing them.† He held up his arms. â€Å"Heatsinkers, I have two introductions to make. We have visitors from outside-two Outworlders, two scholars. They've got worlds running short on energy and they've come here to see how we do it here in Dahl. They think they may learn something.† â€Å"They'll learn how to sweat!† shouted a heatsinker and there was raucous laughter. â€Å"She's got a sweaty chest right now,† shouted a woman, â€Å"covering up like that.† Dors shouted back, â€Å"I'd take it off, but mine can't compete with yours.† The laughter turned good-natured. But one young man stepped forward, staring at Seldon with intense deep-set eyes, his face set into a humorless mask. He said, â€Å"I know you. You're the mathematician.† He ran forward, inspecting Seldon's face with eager solemnity. Automatically, Dors stepped in front of Seldon and Lindor stepped in front of her, shouting, â€Å"Back, heatsinker. Mind your manners.† Seldon said, â€Å"Wait! Let him talk to me. Why is everyone piling in front of me?† Lindor said in a low voice, â€Å"If any of them get close, you'll find they don't smell like hothouse flowers.† â€Å"I'll endure it,† said Seldon brusquely. â€Å"Young man, what is it you want?† â€Å"My name is Amaryl. Yugo Amaryl. I've seen you on holovision.† â€Å"You might have, but what about it?† â€Å"I don't remember your name.† â€Å"You don't have to.† â€Å"You talked about something called psychohistory.† â€Å"You don't know how I wish I hadn't.† â€Å"What?† â€Å"Nothing. What is it you want?† â€Å"I want to talk to you. Just for a little while. Now.† Seldon looked at Lindor, who shook his head firmly. â€Å"Not while he's on his shift.† â€Å"When does your shift begin, Mr. Amaryl?† asked Seldon. â€Å"Sixteen hundred.† â€Å"Can you see me tomorrow at fourteen hundred?† â€Å"Sure. Where?† Seldon turned to Tisalver. Would you permit me to see him in your place?† Tisalver looked very unhappy. â€Å"Its not necessary. He's just a heatsinker.† Seldon said, â€Å"He recognized my face. He knows something about me. He can't be just an anything. I'll see him in my room.† And then, as Tisalver's face didn't soften, he added, â€Å"My room, for which rent is being paid. And you'll be at work, out of the apartment.† Tisalver said in a low voice, â€Å"It's not me, Master Seldon. It's my wife, Casilia. She won't stand for it.† â€Å"I'll talk to her,† said Seldon grimly. â€Å"She'll have to.† 64. Casilia Tisalver opened her eyes wide. â€Å"A heatsinker? Not in my apartment.† â€Å"Why not? Besides, he'll be coming to my room,† said Seldon. â€Å"At fourteen hundred.† â€Å"I won't have it,† said Mistress Tisalver. â€Å"This is what comes of going down to the heatsinks. Jirad was a fool.† â€Å"Not at all, Mistress Tisalver. We went at my request and I was fascinated. I must see this young man, since that is necessary to my scholarly work.† â€Å"I'm sorry if it is, but I won't have it.† Dors Venabili raised her hand. â€Å"Hari, let me take care of this. Mistress Tisalver, if Dr. Seldon must see someone in his room this afternoon, the additional person naturally means additional rent. We understand that. For today, then, the rent on Dr. Seldon's room will be doubled.† Mistress Tisalver thought about it. â€Å"Well, that's decent of you, but it's not only the credits. There's the neighbors to think of. A sweaty, smelly heatsinker-â€Å" â€Å"I doubt that he'll be sweaty and smelly at fourteen hundred, Mistress Tisalver, but let me go on. Since Dr. Seldon must see him, then if he can't see him here, he'll have to see him elsewhere, but we can't run here and there. That would be too inconvenient. Therefore, what we will have to do is to get a room elsewhere. It won't be easy and we don't want to do it, but we will have to. So we will pay the rent through today and leave and of course we will have to explain to Master Hummin why we have had to change the arrangements that he so kindly made for us.† â€Å"Wait.† Mistress Tisalver's face became a study of calculation. â€Å"We wouldn't like to disoblige Master Hummin†¦ or you two. How long would this creature have to stay?† â€Å"He's coming at fourteen hundred. He must be at work at sixteen hundred. He will be here for less than two hours, perhaps considerably less. We will meet him outside, the two of us, and bring him to Dr. Seldon's room. Any neighbors who see us will think he is an Outworlder friend of ours.† Mistress Tisalver nodded her head. â€Å"Then let it be as you say. Double rent for Master Seldon's room for today and the heatsinker will visit just this one time.† â€Å"Just this one time,† said Dors. But later, when Seldon and Dors were sitting in her room, Dors said, â€Å"Why do you have to see him, Hari? Is interviewing a heatsinker important to psychohistory too?† Seldon thought he detected a small edge of sarcasm in her voice and he said tartly, â€Å"I don't have to base everything on this huge project of mine, in which I have very little faith anyway. I am also a human being with human curiosities. We were down in the heatsinks for hours and you saw what the working people there were like. They were obviously uneducated. They were low-level individuals-no play on words intended-and yet here was one who recognized me. He must have seen me on holovision on the occasion of the Decennial Convention and he remembered the word ‘psychohistory.' He strikes me as unusual-as out of place somehow-and I would like to talk to him.† â€Å"Because it pleases your vanity to have become known even to heatsinkers in Dahl?† â€Å"Well†¦ perhaps. But it also piques my curiosity.† â€Å"And how do you know he hasn't been briefed and intends to lead you into trouble as has happened before.† Seldon winced. â€Å"I won't let him run his fingers through my hair. In any case, we're more nearly prepared now, aren't we? And I'm sure you'll be with me. I mean, you let me go Upperside alone, you let me go with Raindrop Forty-Three to the microfarms alone, and you're not going to do that again, are you?† â€Å"You can be absolutely sure I won't,† said Dors. â€Å"Well then, I'll talk to the young man and you can watch out for traps. I have every faith in you.† 65. Amaryl arrived a few minutes before 1400, looking warily about. His hair was neat and his thick mustache was combed and turned up slightly at the edges. His T-shirt was startlingly white. He did smell, but it was a fruity odor that undoubtedly came from the slightly overenthusiastic use of scent. He had a bag with him. Seldon, who had been waiting outside for him, seized one elbow lightly, while Dors seized the other, and they moved rapidly into the elevator. Having reached the correct level, they passed through the apartment into Seldon's room. Amaryl said in a low hangdog voice, â€Å"Nobody home, huh?† â€Å"Everyone's busy,† said Seldon neutrally. He indicated the only chair in the room, a pad directly on the floor. â€Å"No,† said Amaryl. â€Å"I don't need that. One of you two use it.† He squatted on the floor with a graceful downward motion. Dors imitated the movement, sitting on the edge of Seldon's floor-based mattress, but Seldon dropped down rather clumsily, having to make use of his hands and unable, quite, to find a comfortable position for his legs. Seldon said, â€Å"Well, young man, why do you want to see me?† â€Å"Because you're a mathematician. You're the first mathematician I ever saw-close up-so I could touch him, you know.† â€Å"Mathematicians feel like anyone else.† â€Å"Not to me, Dr†¦ Dr†¦ Seldon?† â€Å"That's my name.† Amaryl looked pleased. â€Å"I finally remembered.-You see, I want to be a mathematician too.† â€Å"Very good. What's stopping you?† Amaryl suddenly frowned. â€Å"Are you serious?† â€Å"I presume something is stopping you. Yes, I'm serious.† â€Å"What's stopping me is I'm a Dahlite, a heatsinker on Dahl. I don't have the money to get an education and I can't get the credits to get an education. A real education, I mean. All they taught me was to read and cipher and use a computer and then I knew enough to be a heatsinker. But I wanted more. So I taught myself.† â€Å"In some ways, that's the best kind of teaching. How did you do that?† â€Å"I knew a librarian. She was willing to help me. She was a very nice woman and she showed me how to use computers for learning mathematics. And she set up a software system that would connect me with other libraries. I'd come on my days off and on mornings after my shift. Sometimes she'd lock me in her private room so I wouldn't be bothered by people coming in or she would let me in when the library was closed. She didn't know mathematics herself, but she helped me all she could. She was oldish, a widow lady. Maybe she thought of me as a kind of son or something. She didn't have children of her own.† (Maybe, thought Seldon briefly, there was some other emotion involved too, but he put the thought away. None of his business.) â€Å"I liked number theory,† said Amaryl. â€Å"I worked some things out from what I learned from the computer and from the book-films it used to teach me mathematics. I came up with some new things that weren't in the book-films.† Seldon raised his eyebrows. â€Å"That's interesting. Like what?† â€Å"I've brought some of them to you. I've never showed them to anyone. The people around me-† He shrugged. â€Å"They'd either laugh or be annoyed. Once I tried to tell a girl I knew, but she just said I was weird and wouldn't see me anymore. Is it all right for me to show them to you?† â€Å"Quite all right. Believe me.† Seldon held out his hand and after a brief hesitation, Amaryl handed him the bag he was carrying. For a long time, Seldon looked over Amaryl's papers. The work was naive in the extreme, but he allowed no smile to cross his face. He followed the demonstrations, not one of which was new, of course-or even nearly new-or of any importance. But that didn't matter. Seldon looked up. â€Å"Did you do all of this yourself?† Amaryl, looking more than half-frightened, nodded his head. Seldon extracted several sheets. â€Å"What made you think of this?† His finger ran down a line of mathematical reasoning. Amaryl looked it over, frowned, and thought about it. Then he explained his line of thinking. Seldon listened and said, â€Å"Did you ever read a book by Anat Bigell?† â€Å"On number theory?† â€Å"The title was Mathematical Deduction. It wasn't about number theory, particularly.† Amaryl shook his head. â€Å"I never heard of him. I'm sorry.† â€Å"He worked out this theorem of yours three hundred years ago.' Amaryl looked stricken. â€Å"I didn't know that.† â€Å"I'm sure you didn't. You did it more cleverly, though. It's not rigorous, but-â€Å" â€Å"What do you mean, ‘rigorous'?† â€Å"It doesn't matter.† Seldon put the papers back together in a sheaf, restored it to the bag, and said, â€Å"Make several copies of all this. Take one copy, have it dated by an official computer, and place it under computerized seal. My friend here, Mistress Venabili, can get you into Streeling University without tuition on some sort of scholarship. You'll have to start at the beginning and take courses in other subjects than mathematics, but-â€Å" By now Amaryl had caught his breath. â€Å"Into Streeling University? They won't take me.† â€Å"Why not? Dors, you can arrange it, can't you?† â€Å"I'm sure I can.† â€Å"No, you can't,† said Amaryl hotly. â€Å"They won't take me. I'm from Dahl.† â€Å"Well?† â€Å"They won't take people from Dahl.† Seldon looked at Dors. â€Å"What's he talking about?† Dors shook her head. â€Å"I really don't know.† Amaryl said, â€Å"You're an Outworlder, Mistress. How long have you been at Streeling?† â€Å"A little over two years, Mr. Amaryl.† â€Å"Have you ever seen Dahlites there-short, curly black hair, big mustaches?† â€Å"There are students with all kinds of appearances.† â€Å"But no Dahlites. Look again the next time you're there.† â€Å"Why not?† said Seldon. â€Å"They don't like us. We look different. They don't like our mustaches.† â€Å"You can shave your-† but Seldon's voice died under the other's furious glance. â€Å"Never. Why should I? My mustache is my manhood.† â€Å"You shave your beard. That's your manhood too.† â€Å"To my people it is the mustache.† Seldon looked at Dors again and murmured, â€Å"Bald heads, mustaches†¦ madness.† â€Å"What?† said Amaryl angrily. â€Å"Nothing. Tell me what else they don't like about Dahlites.† â€Å"They make up things not to like. They say we smell. They say we're dirty. They say we steal. They say we're violent. They say we're dumb.† â€Å"Why do they say all this?† â€Å"Because its easy to say it and it makes them feel good. Sure, if we work in the heatsinks, we get dirty and smelly. If we're poor and held down, some of us steal and get violent. But that isn't the way it is with all of us. How about those tall yellow-hairs in the Imperial Sector who think they own the Galaxy-no, they do own the Galaxy. Don't they ever get violent? Don't they steal sometimes? If they did my job, they'd smell the way I do. If they had to live the way I have to, they'd get dirty too.† â€Å"Who denies that there are people of all kinds in all places?† said Seldon. â€Å"No one argues the matter! They just take it for granted. Master Seldon, I've got to get away from Trantor. I have no chance on Trantor, no way of earning credits, no way of getting an education, no way of becoming a mathematician, no way of becoming any thing but what they say I am†¦ a worthless nothing.† This last was said in frustration-and desperation. Seldon tried to be reasonable. â€Å"The person I'm renting this room from is a Dahlite. He has a clean job. He's educated.† â€Å"Oh sure,† said Amaryl passionately. â€Å"There are some. They let a few do it so that they can say it can be done. And those few can live nicely as long as they stay in Dahl. Let them go outside and they'll see how they're treated. And while they're in here they make themselves feel good by treating the rest of us like dirt. That makes them yellow-hairs in their own eyes. What did this nice person you're renting this room from say when you told him you were bringing in a heatsinker? What did he say I would be like? They're gone now†¦ wouldn't be in the same place with me.† Seldon moistened his lips. â€Å"I won't forget you. I'll see to it that you'll get off Trantor and into my own University in Helicon-once I'm back there myself.† â€Å"Do you promise that? Your word of honor? Even though I'm a Dahlite?† â€Å"The fact that you're a Dahlite is unimportant to me. The fact that you are already a mathematician is! But I still can't quite grasp what you're telling me. I find it impossible to believe that there would be such unreasoning feeling against harmless people.† Amaryl said bitterly, â€Å"That's because you've never had any occasion to interest yourself in such things. It can all pass right under your nose and you wouldn't smell a thing because it doesn't affect you. † Dors said, â€Å"Mr. Amaryl, Dr. Seldon is a mathematician like you and his head can sometimes be in the clouds. You must understand that. I am a historian, however. I know that it isn't unusual to have one group of people look down upon another group. There are peculiar and almost ritualistic hatreds that have no rational justification and that can have their serious historical influence. It's too bad.† Amaryl said, â€Å"Saying something is ‘too bad' is easy. You say you disapprove, which makes you a nice person, and then you can go about your own business and not be interested anymore. It's a lot worse than ‘too bad.' It's against everything decent and natural. We're all of us the same, yellow-hairs and black-hairs, tall and short, Easterners, Westerners, Southerners, and Outworlders. We're all of us, you and I and even the Emperor, descended from the people of Earth, aren't we?† â€Å"Descended from what?† asked Seldon. He turned to look at Dors, his eyes wide. â€Å"From the people of Earth!† shouted Amaryl. â€Å"The one planet on which human beings originated.† â€Å"One planet? Just one planet?† â€Å"The only planet. Sure. Earth.† â€Å"When you say Earth, you mean Aurora, don't you?† â€Å"Aurora? What's that?-I mean Earth. Have you never heard of Earth?† â€Å"No,† said Seldon. â€Å"Actually not.† â€Å"It's a mythical world,† began Dors, â€Å"that-â€Å" â€Å"It's not mythical. It was a real planet.† Seldon sighed. â€Å"I've heard this all before. Well, let's go through it again. Is there a Dahlite book that tells of Earth?† â€Å"What?† â€Å"Some computer software, then?† â€Å"I don't know what you're talking about.† â€Å"Young man, where did you hear about Earth?† â€Å"My dad told me. Everyone knows about it.† â€Å"Is there anyone who knows about it especially? Did they teach you about it in school?† â€Å"They never said a word about it there.† â€Å"Then how do people know about it?† Amaryl shrugged his shoulders with an air of being uselessly badgered over nothing. â€Å"Everyone just does. If you want stories about it, there's Mother Rittah. I haven't heard that she's died yet.† â€Å"Your mother? Wouldn't you know-â€Å" â€Å"She's not my mother. That's just what they call her. Mother Rittah. She's an old woman. She lives in Billibotton. Or used to.† â€Å"Where's that?† â€Å"Down in that direction,† said Amaryl, gesturing vaguely. â€Å"How do I get there?† â€Å"Get there? You don't want to get there. You'd never come back.† â€Å"Why not?† â€Å"Believe me. You don't want to go there.† â€Å"But I'd like to see Mother Rittah.† Amaryl shook his head. â€Å"Can you use a knife?† â€Å"For what purpose? What kind of knife?† â€Å"A cutting knife. Like this.† Amaryl reached down to the belt that held his pants tight about his waist. A section of it came away and from one end there flashed out a knife blade, thin, gleaming, and deadly. Dors's hand immediately came down hard upon his right wrist. Amaryl laughed. â€Å"I wasn't planning to use it. I was just showing it to you.† He put the knife back in his belt. â€Å"You need one in self-defense and if you don't have one or if you have one but don't know how to use it, you'll never get out of Billibotton alive. Anyway†-he suddenly grew very grave and intent-â€Å"are you really serious, Master Seldon, about helping me get to Helicon?† â€Å"Entirely serious. That's a promise. Write down your name and where you can be reached by hypercomputer. You have a code, I suppose.† â€Å"My shift in the heatsinks has one. Will that do?† â€Å"Yes.† â€Å"Well then,† said Amaryl, looking up earnestly at Seldon, â€Å"this means I have my whole future riding on you, Master Seldon, so please don't go to Billibotton. I can't afford to lose you now.† He turned beseeching eyes on Dors and said softly, â€Å"Mistress Venabili, if he'll listen to you, don't let him go. Please.†

International Relations Essay

International relations (IR) is the study of relationships among countries, the roles of sovereign states, inter-governmental organizations (IGO), international non-governmental organizations (INGO), non-governmental organizations (NGO), and multinational corporations (MNC). International relations is an academic and a public policy field, and so can be positive and normative, because it analyzes and formulates the foreign policy of a given State. As political activity, international relations dates from the time of the Greek historian Thucydides (ca. 460–395 BC), and, in the early 20th century, became a discrete academic field (No. 5901 in the 4-digit UNESCO Nomenclature) within political science. However, international relations is an interdisciplinary field of study.[3] Besides political science, the field of international relations draws intellectual materials from the fields technology and engineering, economics, history, and international law, philosophy, geography, and social work, sociology, anthropology, and criminology, psychology and gender studies, cultural studies and culturology. The scope of international relations comprehends globalization, state sovereignty, and international security, ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, and nationalism, economic development and global finance, terrorism and organized crime, human security, foreign interventionism, and human rights. History The history of international relations can be traced back to thousands of years ago; Barry Buzan and Richard Little, for example, consider the interaction of ancient Sumerian city-states, starting in 3,500 BC, as the first fully-fledged international system.[4] The official portraits of King WÅ‚adysÅ‚aw IV dressed according to French, Spanish and Polish fashion reflects the complex politics of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Thirty Years’ War The history of international relations based on sovereign states is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, a stepping stone in the development of the modern state system. Prior to this the European medieval organization of political authority was based on a vaguely hierarchical religious order. Contrary to popular belief, Westphalia still embodied layered systems of sovereignty, especially within the Holy Roman Empire.[5] More than the Peace of Westphalia, the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 is thought to reflect an emerging norm that sovereigns had no internal equals within a defined territory and no external superiors as the ultimate authority within the territory’s sovereign borders. The centuries of roughly 1500 to 1789 saw the rise of the independent, sovereign states, the institutionalization of diplomacy and armies. The French Revolution added to this the new idea that not princes or an oligarchy, but the citizenry of a state, defined as the nation, should be defined as sovereign. Such a state in which the nation is sovereign would thence be termed a nation-state (as opposed to a monarchy, or a religious  state). The term republic increasingly became its synonym. An alternative model of the nation-state was developed in reaction to the French republican concept by the Germans and others, who instead of giving the citizenry sovereignty, kept the princes and nobility, but defined nation-statehood in ethnic-linguistic terms, establishing the rarely if ever fulfilled ideal that all people speaking one language should belong to one state only. The same claim to sovereignty was made for both forms of nation-state. (It is worth noting that in Europe today, few sta tes conform to either definition of nation-state: many continue to have royal sovereigns, and hardly any are ethnically homogeneous.) The particular European system supposing the sovereign equality of states was exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia via colonialism and the â€Å"standards of civilization†. The contemporary international system was finally established through decolonization during the Cold War. However, this is somewhat over-simplified. While the nation-state system is considered â€Å"modern†, many states have not incorporated the system and are termed â€Å"pre-modern†. Further, a handful of states have moved beyond insistence on full sovereignty, and can be considered â€Å"post-modern†. The ability of contemporary IR discourse to explain the relations of these different types of states is disputed. â€Å"Levels of analysis† is a way of looking at the international system, which includes the individual level, the domestic state as a unit, the international level of transnational and intergovernmental affairs, and the global level. What is explicitly recognized as international relations theory was not developed until after World War I, and is dealt with in more detail below. IR theory, however, has a long tradition of drawing on the work of other social sciences. The use of capitalizations of the â€Å"I† and â€Å"R† in international relations aims to distinguish the academic discipline of international relations from the phenomena of international relations. Many cite Sun Tzu’s The Art of War (6th century BC), Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War (5th century BC), Chanakya’s Arthashastra (4th century  BC), as the inspiration for realist theory, with Hobbes’ Leviathan and Machiavelli’s The Prince providing further elaboration. Similarly, liberalism[6] draws upon the work of Kant and Rousseau, with the work of the former often being cited as the first elaboration of democratic peace theory. Though contemporary human rights is considerably different from the type of rights envisioned under natural law, Francisco de Vitoria, Hugo Grotius and John Locke offered the first accounts of universal entitlement to certain rights on the basis of common humanity. In the twentieth century, in addition to contemporary theories of liberal internationalism, Marxism has been a foundation of international relations. Study of IR Flags of the member states of the United Nations Initially, international relations as a distinct field of study was almost entirely British-centered. IR only emerged as a formal academic ‘discipline’ in 1919 with the founding of the first ‘chair’ (professorship) in IR – the Woodrow Wilson Chair at Aberystwyth, University of Wales (now Aberystwyth University[7]), from an endowment given by David Davies, became the first academic position dedicated to IR. This was rapidly followed by establishment of IR at US universities and Geneva, Switzerland. In the early 1920s, the London School of Economics’ department of international relations was founded at the behest of Nobel Peace Prize winner Philip Noel-Baker, and was the first institute to offer a wide range of degrees in the field. Furthermore, the International History department at LSE, developed as primarily focused on the history of IR in the early modern, colonial and Cold War periods. The first university entirely dedicated to the study of IR was the Graduate Institute of International Studies (now the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies), which was founded in 1927 to form diplomats associated to the League of Nations, established in Geneva some years before. The Graduate Institute of International Studies offered one of the first Ph.D. degrees in international relations. Georgetown University’s  Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the oldest international relations faculty in the United States, founded in 1919. The Committee on International Relations at the University of Chicago was the first to offer a graduate degree, in 1928. Now Universities in USA, UK, Europe, India, Kazakhstan, Brazil, Australia, Canada, Africa, Russia, Indonesia offer Graduate, Post-Graduate & PhD degrees in IR. Theory Main article: International relations theory Normative theory In the academic discipline of International relations, Smith, Baylis & Owens in their Introduction to Smith, Baylis & Owens (2008)[8] make the case that the normative position or normative theory is to make the World a better place and that this theoretical worldview aims to do so by being aware of implicit assumptions and explicit assumptions that constitute a non-normative position and align or position the normative towards the loci of other key socio-political theories such as political Liberalism, Marxism, political Constructivism, political Realism, political Idealism and political Globalization.

Managers

INTRODUCTIONManagers are one of the most important elements for an organization to be successful. Sometimes we refer them as the brains of an organization. They are the ones directing and controlling the works and staff of a department or an organization. They are vital in the states of affairs of an organization. How they perform and deal with people around them contributes to the welfare of the whole organization.It is very important to know that each manager knows his role and how to make it well. It is in their handling of work and how they deal with people around them that brings great significance to the success of their organization. They are very much the key to a successful organization. They are the criteria in which an organization ought to have success.  In this paper, we will try to unravel the responsibilities and functions of a manger. May this paper be a guide to all managers working in an organization.ROLE OF MANAGERSA manager must be well versed regarding the syst em of the organization he is working and he must convey to his people all matters regarding the system. It is important that the mangers have the knowledge of the system. He must relay such information to his people so that his people will know the flow of the system of the organization. A manager educates his people on the structure of the organization. A manager must also give emphasis on the work of their unit and the contributions it will give to the welfare of the whole organization.The knowledge of the group regarding their function is then vital in their performance and to the organization’s success. Educating his people regarding the system of the organization and the function of their unit must be the first focus of a manager. It is in this dissemination of information that shapes what and how the unit can contribute to the whole organization. A manager must always banner this state of mastery regarding the organization for him to function well and to be able to educ ate well his people.Managers must also inculcate to his people their value as a component of the system. This is very important in an organization in order for the employees to know their worth to the entire system. Employees need to know this thing because the idea of value plays a vital role in the performance in working in the system. When employees know their value, they are most likely to be inspired in working. The presence of value makes employees really connected to the system. This will enable them to see themselves as important parts of the whole system.Employees finding their value to the system of the organization will bring about the idea of being one with the system. This idea is a very powerful factor in the performance of employees. This makes them one with the system and will make them appreciate that what they will do will contribute to the welfare of the whole system and if they do well, the system’s success will also be their own success and vice versa. To inform the employees and make them appreciate their value to the system is one of the roles of the manager.A manager must also understand that his employees are different from each other. A manager must see every employee’s background (family, education, skills, abilities, etc.). This is not an act of ranking each employee but this is an act of looking at each of them and tries to discover and organize plan on how they will gel and complement each other. The manager must try to put each and every employee to a position where they can contribute to the organization as a whole.This role of the manager is very vital because it enables him to facilitate plans that would be so much beneficial to the organization’s welfare. Team work leads to success and how a manager puts together diverse people will be key to success. This is an art that a manager will have to master. This is like putting together a puzzle, a puzzle that leads to success.A manager loves learning. He is al ways open to growth and development in learning. This openness to growth and development is not only limited to his own self but also to his members and employees. A manager must provide a good learning condition not only for himself but also to his employees. He encourages education for those who have deficiencies in educational attainment. He also provides seminars and courses to his people for the advancement of learning such as personality development seminars, leadership seminars and the likes.Openness to learning is an act of adapting to the changing world. Knowledge always evolves and thus people must also adapt to its evolution. People’s minds are also dynamic and thus needs to be catered by new trainings and seminars. This is one great manifestation of a good manager, a manager that is in constant search for new ideas and methods, a practice that a manager must always look forward and do.A manager must understand a stable system and the interaction of people and the circumstances that work in. Performances of everyone depend on a stable system. When coaching an employee or correcting a mistake, it must be in a good manner that does not distract employee’s attention to work. It must come from an orderly manner and must not be an insult to the employee. AS good working atmosphere must always be in the mind of a manager and must not do away from it.Lessons will always take its effects in a manner of good coaching. People will always take suggestions for growth and development if it comes from a professional and even brotherly manner. Managers must not be the menace of the workplace instead and avenue to freely express one’s self and grow. This is very important in a manager’s role in an organization, a manager that makes learning easy and not a personal attack to someone.A manager must not rely always on authority of office. This means that he does not rely on power and does not use power to manipulate employees. Power creates difficulties for employees to work with. It sometimes makes employees feel that they are lesser persons than the manager. They at times lose the will to persevere in every endeavor when subjected to power and thus losses the will to do their job well.A manager must use knowledge in persuading an employee to a particular task. His personality as knowledgeable and open person will make an employee at ease in different situations. If an employee is at ease, this will then pave way to a more constructive learning process between an employee and a manager. Both feel something good in learning and both will then work hard and support each other in the organization’s aims.A manager must always study results of performances not only his own performance but the performances of his people. This is again an important task to do. This entails that a manager must always look not only to his accomplishments but also to the accomplishments and performance of his people. A manager must look if he had an employee that needs help. It is van inevitable part of an organization that someone will commit mistakes. If someone commits a mistake, that someone surely needs help. Help may come from simple things such as just rearranging tasks that somehow is too burdening to the employee or by just giving more explanation regarding the task involve.A manager must create trust to his employees. This presupposes an environment of freedom and innovation. Given that a manager must have trust to his people, this will then give way for his people to have confidence in themselves. This confidence will now give them an opportunity to innovate and create for the organization on what they deem important and vital for its success. Employees can now be part of the whole brain that runs an organization. This will not only lead to growth of every employee but also to the organization as a whole.A manager must not demand and expect perfection from his people. No one is perfect in this world and no employee can give a perfect accomplishment. A manger must understand this reality so that he can truly relate in good manner with his people. This is also an avenue to a more helping and cooperative way of doing work because everyone knows that they are not perfect and they need each other for them to achieve the goal of the organization as a whole.A manager must always listen and must always be objective in listening. In times of conflicts, managers will hear feedbacks from his people and it may contain degrading words for others employees. He must not judge instantly and must not take everything to be correct. His judgment on a certain matter must always be coupled with rational thinking. In this state, the organization will have a better inter human relationship that will always be key to success.A manager must also be engaged in informal conversations with his people not to judge them but just giving time to listen to them. This will promote a closer and free relationship be tween him and his people. This will also enable the manager to know his people’s plans and feelings and are vital to his decision making. This is a must for a manager for him not only to be able to be in a good relationship to his people but also in learning more about them because some of his people will work for a long time with him and good relationship is very much imperative. This will make them create better teamwork.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A manager must also know the benefits and losses that an organization may get from competition between employees and groups. Competition will always be present in an organization. This is a ubiquitous reality. It is important that a manager will know its effects, positive or negative. With this knowledge, the manager can easily make adjustments and comments if one competition is not fruitful. It is also important that a manager will always remind employees of sportsmanship in every competition in accomplishments. Everything must be done in good manner and everything must not be personalized when we refer to competition.CONCLUSIONA manager must always be a person who banners good traits and has the capability of handling people. This is very important for a manger to be successful. A manager must always be for development and growth not only for himself but also for his people. It is important that all of them will have further education and skill trainings. As a manager, you are not only a facilitator but also a teacher, friend and a brother at times. It is very important to banner all these traits.The betterment of an organization will always rely on the manager efficiency in facilitating works and the people around him. This is the demand that a manager must meet in order to be successful in his job. A successful manager will surely contribute big to the success of the organization and in return the success of all the people working under it. The manager’s role will always have a chained effect on the peo ple and organization in general.BIBLIOGRAPHYJohn Maxwell(1999). The 21 Indispensable Qualities of a Leader: Becoming the Person Others Will Want to Follow. Maxwell Motivation.Change Management Basics: the Role of Managers and Supervisors.Role of Managers.

Grammatical Development in L2 Learners Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Grammatical Development in L2 Learners - Essay Example Grammatical knowledge, or as some label it linguistic knowledge, entails the ability to produce certain sounds that have certain meanings and to understand the sounds made by others. Also, a further widely accepted definition of grammatical knowledge is the subconscious internalized knowledge of language structure and rules that help learners generate communicative utterances, momentarily analyze and comprehend received ones, and respond appropriately (Gass & Selinker, 1994). In other words, it's the ability to produce and comprehend proper communicative utterances in conversations. Chomsky argued that children learn language not by habit formation but by acquisition a set of rules or grammar. This grammar will have a finite number of rules, but will be capable of generating an infinite number of well-formed sentences. Most of these sentences are new to our experience. This linguistic knowledge must have a generative capacity. In other words, children do not learn and reproduce a large set of sentences, but they routinely create new sentences that they have never learnt before. This is only possible because they internalize rules rather than strings of words; extremely common examples of utterances, such as "it breaked" or "mummy goed" Show clearly that children are not copying the language around them but applying rules. The task of the linguist, he claimed, is to describe this universal human ability, known as language competence, with a grammar from which the grammars of all languages could be derived. The linguist would develop this grammar by looking at th e rules children use in hearing and speaking their first language. He termed the resulting model, or grammar, a transformational-generative grammar, referring to the transformations that generate language. (Chomsky, N. (1986) When language use is considered as communication, the concepts of input, comprehensible input, and comprehensible output are appropriate metaphors because they call for images of messages (Swain & Lapkin, 1998). Corder, in (1976) made an important distinction between what is available to the learner to learn (input) and what has become part of his/her procedural knowledge (intake). What is available to the learner to learn does not count as part of his/her grammatical knowledge until it is integrated in the learner's current inter-language system. Thus, it's not enough to know about rules, lexemes, and sounds, but rather to be ready to use them whenever the learner is engaged in actual speech events. Furthermore, Sorace (1993a, 1993b, and Brad, Roebrtson, & Sorace, 1996), argued that there are two kinds of changes which occur learner's grammars: discontinuous and continuous. What Sorace interpreted from looking at data from learners of Italian was a differentiation in terms of input use with regard to auxiliary selection. She claims that it is possible for the input, or what she calls the evidence available to the learner, to have a varying effect depending on the part of grammar to be affected - more so for lexical semantics and les so for syntax. Some grammatical structures can be learned explicitly while others may only be taught implicitly through interaction because even if they can be logically justified, they are still not used by him/her

How do the three perspectives (Modern, Symbolic-Interpretive, and Essay

How do the three perspectives (Modern, Symbolic-Interpretive, and Post-modern) contribute to different ways to think about organisations - Essay Example Modern perspectives on organizational theory began through the 1950’s, 1960’s to the end of 1970’s. However it’s the latter period and writers associated with that period that had a real impact on the subsequent developments of the modern perspectives on organizational theory. Emery and Trist (1960) and Woodward (1965) for example stand out in their efforts to develop a theoretical and conceptual framework for analysis. This period was followed by what’s known as the Symbolic-interpretive perspective in organizational theory. Starting from the pioneering work of Schutz (1932) it culminated in the path-breaking work of Clifford and Marcus (1986) on evolutionary anthropology. However, many other writers contributed to this evolutionary process though. Finally the Post-modern perspective on organizational theory began to be developed by such writers as Bell (1973) and the tradition continued to evolve with various writers and researchers contributing to its many faceted perspectives till Baudrillard (1988) wrote his masterpiece on Post-modernism with articulate emphasis on the organization as a post-modern phenomenon that required a more analytical approach than was hitherto practiced. Modern perspective about the business organization is basically determined by objective reality, i.e. there is an objective external environment which exists beyond the reach of humans’ knowledge and therefore the organization exists as a separate entity form this objective external environment. However there is an element of positivism in human’s ability to learn the real nature of this external environment by developing concepts that enable them to progress by accumulating intelligence. When this is applied to the modern business organization and its environment it’s imperative in the first instance for it to operate in its environment with a set of rules or norms, standards and procedures. Its organizational behavior is determined

Leadership, Teambuilding, and Communication Essay

Leadership, Teambuilding, and Communication - Essay Example These three characteristics are therefore an essential part of an organization, and from their study, one can come up with a conclusive understanding of an organization’s performance. This essay takes a look at some of the organizational behaviors at Apple Inc. The company has been a complete success to the extent of being a team leader in its line of production. Apple Inc. itself, however, has had a unique organizational behavior since its formation to its present status. This unique trend has been especially in terms of leadership, which has been attributed largely by the number of times the company has had to change its leaders in order to be able to reach a suitable leader and to deliver the company’s objectives. The following analysis gives an inside look into Apple Inc.’s organizational behavior focusing on the leadership trends, teambuilding activities, and communication level. Leadership theories and interpersonal forms of power at Apple Inc. Appleâ€℠¢s organizational behavior Right from its inception into the technology business, Apple Inc. has had a historic background in its leadership, leading it to become a market leader in its field. The achievement can only be linked to the organization’s dedication and severity when it comes to leadership. Over many years, there have been a number of developmental changes in the organization’s structure and leadership. The organization’s objective of changing the world through a provision of computers to the masses has led to multiple changes within the company that have either been positive or negative to the company’s growth (Freedman & Vohr, 1991). The company was first under a centralized organizational structure in 1983, being run by its co-founder Steve Jobs and CEO Markkula. Under this structure, authority was restricted only to higher levels of leadership which were all under Markkula (Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, & Uhl-Bien, 2010). At its early stage, the organization was made up of five product divisions, an additional four divisions offering product support services and other several administrative departments (Freedman & Vohr, 1991). All the divisions and departments reported to Markkula and Jobs; however, this system was not an effective one. This is because, with time, there started to be divisions of interest within the divisions unto which the newly appointed CEO had to carryout re-organization and restructure of the management system (Apple Inc. 2010). Over the years, there have been several changes in the management of the company including the dismissal and re-appointment of the company’s co-founder Steve Jobs. This essay will forego all the changes that took place in the company and concentrate on the leadership of Steve Jobs and his influence over the company during his tenure as the company’s CEO. Traditional leadership theories The traditional leadership theory was first described by Marx Weber (1947). The leadership theory relates to a style that bases its belief in power being bequeathed to a leader as a way of maintaining tradition. According to Chun Hai (2007), Weber gave the characteristics of a traditional leader as: The leader’s followers gain favor in terms of promotions depending on the office politics. The leaders gain followers, owing to the fact that they are in their current position, but not due to their individual charisma. The leaders get

Semiotics(symbolism) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Semiotics(symbolism) - Essay Example David stood up to the Philistine giant, Goliath, as Cuba stood up to the imperialist giant, America. The girl with the wooden doll is a symbol of proletariat simplicity and innocence (supporting the David metaphor), standing up to all that threatens and embracing the seed of the future. African dance and the Beatles were seen as potential distractions from revolutionary focus, just as they are seen by various religious groups today as sinful distractions from Christian focus. The absolute present of the material images that engulfed Edmundo, separating him from the hustle and bustle of New York City, might suggest the way a church acts as sanctuary and a place set apart, an embassy of God and spiritual presence. His reference to patriotic hymns and his repeated use of the term redemption also support this. To see the dream and the nightmare is to encounter Kali (creation and destruction), or the Father and the Son (wrathful vengeance and sacrificial love). Haydee and Celia, political leaders in the struggle against Batista, were not in the exhibit, solidifying this revolution as a patriarchal religion. ... I therefore see a patriarchal religious system unifying the various metaphors used. Edmundo: Photo Changes Photos are not static, if you know how to look at them. They change with time because images are like zucchini, taking on the flavor of what surrounds them. Photographs sustain relativity to socio-historical climate, culture, current events, observer perspective and attitude. As an example, consider a photograph by Ansel Adams, Moon and Half Dome, taken in Yosemite National Park, 1958. Until quite recently, anyone who looks at this photograph would see the majesty and timeless, natural beauty of Yosemite. The moon joins the powerful mountain to the heavens, emphasizing the verticality of Half Dome, The black and white medium, and juxtaposition of shadow and light, speaks of nature’s exquisite simplicity and honesty. That perspective of this photograph has probably been a typical one until this year, when this very mountain claimed the life of a hiker. The media described the horror of witnesses, who had to be airlifted out because they were too traumatized to hike back down themselves. The media has continued to report on more than a dozen deaths in Yosemite, this year. Now, when I look at this photo, I see malevolence, the interplay of life and death, the danger of nature, and the coldness of the moon. My childhood hiking memories are now threatened by a nagging suspicion of parental negligence. What was lovely and quietly evocative has become haunted and threatening, â€Å"Context of viewing is meaning (Desnoes).† Edmundo: Photograph as Metaphor A photograph may look, to some, like a static recording of a single fragment of life, bounded by subject, immediate context, background, and single mark upon linear time, In truth,

Health and social care Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Health and social care - Assignment Example The policy also focuses on restricting the supply of drugs and imposing restriction on the people who are engaged in drugs trade activities. The Care Standard Act 200 imposed for providing assistance to the children by reducing the irregularity and unfairness. Various facilities residential care homes, nursing homes and children homes for development of health of the children. The main aim of this standard is to enhance the health of the children. This act covers a wide perspective such as parental responsibility, protection of child etc. This act imposes duty and responsibility on wide number of individuals or organizations for promoting and safeguarding the welfare of the children (Waller, 2009). The main role or the responsibility of the work force development is to assist the volunteers, staff and the trustees by performing the function as an individual or in team and thus assisting them to develop and improve their skills , creativity , understanding and knowledge in performing the work effectively and efficiently towards the achievement of the goals and objectives. It also helps in improving the delivery of services. The term children workforce is considered as a narrow perspective for discussing and determining whether the work is paid or unpaid. The workforce development mainly comprises of recruiting, retaining and developing of the volunteers and staff for achieving the objectives and goals set by the organization. Training, induction, qualification, appraisals, monitoring, supervision and reading together contributes towards the workforce development. Work force development strives towards providing better service to the individuals and the communities who are invol ved. It fulfils the expectation of the funders in terms of improving the effectiveness and quality. It provides better opportunities to its employees for personal growth and development. Therefore it plays an important role and the people in various areas of workforce are

Demography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Demography - Essay Example As people live longer there is bound to be a shift in the structure of the household. For example: working population is the biggest contributor to nation's development and family's economy. The longer the old population lives, the longer the working population will have to support them. When the working population gets older and cannot work anymore, their children, who are now in labor force, will have to support their parents and grand parents by working very hard. The existing Social Security and Medicare benefits may not prove to be sufficient for the older ones because in all likelihood the medical services become more costly for the older people as their requirements of medical attention become more. Well, to a great extent the improved medical services are one good reason for an increase in the average age of an individual. As a result, many households now a day consist of four generations. In many such cases the number of financially dependent family members far exceeds the w orking members. Out of these four generations, the third generation, who are the only ones in labor force, will have to support their parents, grand parents and their children. This phenomenon is certainly the result of increasing aging population with high life expectancy. In order to aid the increasing older

Introduction to International Business Global Marketing Assignment

Introduction to International Business Global Marketing - Assignment Example Furthermore, as the retail market of China is growing rapidly just as United States, so, the organization of Wal-Mart desired to penetrate Chinese Markets (Yates, 2013). The Chinese retail market is recognized as one of the most growing market, with estimated revenues of $ 860 billion in the year 2006. Moreover, it is estimated that the retail revenue of the Chinese market might increase to $ 2.4 trillion by 2020. This estimated attracted the world’s leading retailer, Wal-Mart to penetrate into the market of China as compared to others. However, it had to face wide range of challenges or risks at the time of penetration or expansion. These are stated as below. Customer Preferences: this is recognized as one of the most important challenge that the organization of Wal-Mart had to face at the time of penetrating the market of China. However, in order to mitigate the challenge, the organization decided to implement the strategy of ‘go-native’, i.e. local adoption. The organization of Wal-Mart decided to implement the taste and preferences of the local customers so as to attract a wide range of customers of varying income groups and cultures. For example: Wal-Mart decided to offer fresh foods for dining purposes so as to enhance the reliability and loyalty of the customers towards the brand (Gereffi & Ong, 2012). Culture: the organization of Wal-Mart adopts the local culture of China at the time of promoting the products so as to attract a wide range of customers towards the brand that might amplify its brand value and market share. Logistics and supply Chain: in order to mitigate the logistics and supply chain issues, the organization of Wal-Mart recruited a wide range of suppliers in order to attain the ingredients very easily (Gereffi & Ong, 2012). Economic risks: inflation rates acted as one of the biggest economic risk for the organization

War Fare Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

War Fare - Essay Example Accordingly, trench warfare, a particularly brutal type of warfare undertaken in armed trenches, and resulting in huge human casualties and loss of life, was a key feature of the battles which occurred as part of the First World War. Difficult conditions coupled with widespread disease and poor sanitation were features of this insidious type of armed conflict. Seeking to explore the devastation which occurred as a result of trench warfare during World War One, this essay will analyze the conditions of trench combat, the types of disease prevalent throughout the trenches and will explore how British soldiers endured fighting under these inhospitable conditions. We begin now with an overview of the preconditions which led to one of the most traumatic episodes in world history. There were a variety of important preconditions to the emergence of the conflict, which up until that date, had been the largest that the world had ever seen. The First World War represented the dueling alliances of the Triple Entente - composed of Britain, France and Russia – and the Triple Alliance – comprised of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Pre-conditions are best described as the precursors to conflict and there were many underlying long-term causes for the belligerent behaviour of the states of Europe in 1914. An arms race, underway for years, and growing at a rapid pace just prior to the emergence of the First World War set the stage for violent conflict between the major states of the region. Accordingly, the arms race occurring at the time exacerbated the global balance of power and led to an increased likelihood of aggressive behavior between the armies of Europe. As the European armies grew and competed with one another for size, manpower and prestige, the naval race between German and Britain contributed to a partition of the major states of the continent into two

Four Views to The College Conspiracy Essay Example for Free

Four Views to The College Conspiracy Essay In May of 2011 a video by the National Inflation Association (N.I.A) surfaced on YouTube gathering over two million views and opening the eyes of people to the American college system. According to the producers of this video, College is the largest scam in US history! Is college a worth-while investment? Is it just a way for the government to stimulate the economy? Are college degrees really a necessity in performing on the job? All of these questions have been asked and answered with both yes and no. Four writers with different views on this matter have written up articles concerning this issue. While reading through the articles one will notice that the views for each author are backed up by examples and statistics but differ in viewpoints, resulting taking different sides to this topic. In the first article, by The Christian Science Monitor, examples of successful entrepreneurs without degrees like Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook and Peter Thiel of Paypal were given to the audience. The writer then expresses his belief that not everyone is cut out for college, some would be better suited to vocational training, but the United States needs more well-educated people to compete in the world economy. Statistics on how college degree recipients have a decreased likelihood of unemployment and receive increased wages on average are then given. The next article, from the New York Times, opens up by revisiting America’s past decision to make high school open to the public and how education has benefitted the United States. The writer makes a comparison between the current situation of the importance of higher education to the America’s past decision. Studies stated that prove a bachelor’s degree is an asset even for those whose jobs do not require any degree. He states that, beyond the monetary value of a degree, education seems to make people happier and healthier. Quoting M.I.T economist, David Autor, writer states his opinion on how not sending a child to college would be a disaster. Different statistical evidence were then used. Once financial aid was taken into account, the average net tuition of public four-year college were approximately $2000, a lot less than what most people presume the cost to be. A recipient of a college degree makes 83 percent more than those with only a high-school diploma. Citing the Hamilton Project, a research group in Washington, an investment in a college degree has a 15 percent annual return, 8 percent more than stock investment, and 14 percent more than in real estate. On the other hand, article three, by John Stossel disagrees with the potency of a college education in the working world. He starts the article with examples of successful non-degree holders, Michael Dell, Mark Zuckerberg, Bill Gates, Mark Cuban, Richard Branson, Simon Cowell and Peter Jennings. Stossel then shares his opinion that for many people, college is a scam. He then states the opinions of his Fox Televison partner Richard Vedder. Sharing similar view points, Vedder reasons out that students who do well in college often did well in high school, even though most students, even those who did poorly in high school, are pushed into college. He then asks as to why colleges accept the lower-tier of students and answers that question by stating that government loans ensure students are able to pay for college, even at the risk of long term debt, which fuels the academia. Giving out some statistics to back up the claim, Stossels points out the high percentages of baggage porters, bellhops and taxi and limo drivers have a college degree that they did not require to obtain their current jobs. The last article comes from Marty Nemko, a career counselor. She gives her personal experiences during her job when students are disturbed by the amount of money they have already spent on their education but still lack the units to complete their degree program. She then gives out the statistic that among college freshman who graduated in the bottom 40 percent of their high school, 76 percent won’t earn a diploma even if given 8 Â ½ years. Yet colleges admit these students and take their money. 23 percent of the students themselves are unprepared for college and students learn less in college than what is led on to believe, only having 16.4 percent of students satisfied with the instruction given to them. These four sources gave their own personal opinions and back them up with sufficient evidence in the form of examples, testimonies, and statistics. The Christian Science Monitor takes into account, not only each individuals need for a college degree, but also the country’s need for college graduates to compete in the world market. The New York Times’ article takes finances into account giving reasons to why college degrees are actually affordable, with the proper financial aid, and how they pay off once they’re put to good use. John Stossel takes his views the college system as a for profit organization, where, although some are able to use their education in the working world, many don’t and the college system takes advantage of the mass of hopefuls who try to better their lives, successful or not. Marty Nemko draws from her own personal experiences as a career counselor dealing with college students and their problems in taking the college route. What the discussion comes down to is how are the four authors interpreting the data they are given and how do their own viewpoints make them subjective to the matter. One side believes that a college education is a worth-while investment while the other believes that it is just a waste of time and money. Works Cited Americas Most Overrated Product: Higher Education. What Colleges Must Do: What Parents Must Do. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Jan. 2013. The College Scam. Fox News. FOX News Network, 06 July 2011. Web. 24 Jan. 2013. Is College a Scam? The Christian Science Monitor. The Christian Science Monitor, 15 Sept. 2011. Web. 25 Jan. 2013. Leonhardt, David. ECONOMIC SCENE; Even for Cashiers, College Pays Off. The New York Times. The New York Times, 26 June 2011. Web. 26 Jan. 2013.

Militarization And Weaponization Of Outer Space Politics Essay

Militarization And Weaponization Of Outer Space Politics Essay The exploration and use of outer space à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ shall be for peaceful purposes and shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interest of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [The] prevention of an arms race in outer space would avert a grave danger for international peace and security Prevention of an arms race in outer space, United Nations General Assembly Resolution, A/RES/55/32, January 2001. (PDF Document) Its politically sensitive, but its going to happen. Some people dont want to hear this, and it sure isnt in vogue, but-absolutely-were going to fight in space. Were going to fight from space and were going to fight into space. Thats why the US has development programs in directed energy and hit-to-kill mechanisms. We will engage terrestrial targets someday-ships, airplanes, land targets-from space. Commander-in-Chief of US Space Command, Joseph W. Ashy, Aviation Week and Space Technology, August 9, 1996, quoted from Master of Space by Karl Grossman, Progressive Magazine, January 2000 World Agrees: Space for peaceful purposes Internationally, for many years, it has been agreed that space should be used for peaceful purposes, and for the benefit of all humankind. Examples of uses and benefits include weather monitoring, help in search and rescue, help in potential natural disaster detection, coordinating efforts on detecting and dealing with issues of space debris and minimizing harmful impacts on Earth, research in sciences, health, etc. The United Nations (U.N.) Outer Space Treaty provides the basic framework on international space law, saying that space should be reserved for peaceful uses. It came into effect in October 1967. As summarized by the U.N. Office for Outer Space Affairs web site, the treaty includes the following principles: the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries and shall be the province of all mankind; outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all States; outer space is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means; States shall not place nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies or station them in outer space in any other manner; the Moon and other celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes; astronauts shall be regarded as the envoys of mankind; States shall be responsible for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental activities; States shall be liable for damage caused by their space objects; and States shall avoid harmful contamination of space and celestial bodies. Towards the end of 2000, the United Nations General Assembly had a vote on a resolution called the Prevention of Outer Space Arms Race. It was adopted by a recorded vote of 163 in favor to none against, with 3 abstentions. The three that abstained were the Federated States of Micronesia, Israel and the United States of America. (You can see the details from a U.N. press release, together with a list of countries that voted, were absent and so on.) In June 2004, The United Nations reiterated concerns about the militarization of space and not being used for peaceful purposes in a U.N. General Assembly session: The view was expressed that the [U.N.] Committee [on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space] had not been fulfilling the mandate given to it by the General Assembly in recommending ways and means of maintaining outer space for peaceful purposes. That delegation expressed the view that the Committee should address itself to that issue, since military activities in outer space were seriously affecting international cooperation in the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space. Some delegations expressed the view that a greater risk of the introduction of weapons into outer space and the adoption of a concept of a use of force in outer space would undermine the basis for and the very logic of developing nonproliferation mechanisms and of the whole system of international security. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The view was expressed that an international agreement should be concluded to prohibit the deployment of weapons in outer space. Report of the Committee of the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, United Nations General Assembly, Fifty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/58/20), 11 to 20 June 2003, pp. 7-8 Similar positions have been reiterated since, too. For example, October 2006 saw a near-unanimous vote at the General Assembly when 166 nations voted for a resolution to prevent an arms race in outer space. Only one country abstrained, Israel, while only one voted against such a resolution, the United States of America. Whether the Committee can be effective, as the General Assembly desire, depends largely on some of the most powerful nations in the world. US Seeks Militarization of Space While various militaries around the world have used Space for years, it has largely been for surveillance satellites etc. However, the Bush Administration in the United States has long made it clear that the US wishes to expand its military capabilities and have weapons in space and therefore also be dominant in this fourth military arena (the other three being sea, land and air). This new ultimate high ground would provide further superior military capabilities. While it would provide additional important defense mechanisms, many worry about the other benefit it would bring-capabilities for offensive purposes to push Americas national interests even if they are not in the interests of the international community. Furthermore, together with its pursuit of missile defense, (which goes against the Anti Ballistic Missile treaty, an important part of global arms control mechanisms), the USA risks starting a wasteful expenditure of an arms race in space. Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States, and the resulting War on Terror military-based policies and spending has increased. So too have the policies looking into space-based weapons. The Washington D.C.-based Center for Defence Information (CDI) provides a detailed report suggesting that this should not be a rushed decision: Unlike in Star Trek, the final frontier has yet to become a battlefield. But if the current trends continue, that will change-not in the distance future of science fiction, but within the next several decades. Emerging Bush administration plans and policies are clearly aimed at making the United States the first nation to deploy space-based weapons. There are several drivers behind this goal, including the very real concern about the vulnerability of space assets that are increasingly important to how the US military operates, and the administrations decision to pursue missile defense. Unfortunately, the administration has done little thinking-at least publicly-about the potential for far-reaching military, political and economic ramifications of a US move to break the taboo against weaponizing space. There is reason for concern that doing so could actually undermine, rather than enhance, the national security of the United States, as well as global stability. Thus it behooves the administration, as well as Congress, to undertake an in-depth and public policy review of the pros and cons of weaponizing space. Such a review would look seriously at the threat, both short-term and long-term, as well as measures to prevent, deter or counter any future threat using all the tools in the US policy toolbox: diplomatic, including arms control treaties; economic; and military, including defensive measures short of offensive weapons. There is nothing to be gained, and potentially much to be lost, by rushing such a momentous change in US space policy. Theresa Hitchens, Weapons in Space: Silver Bullet or Russian Roulette?, The Policy Implications of US Pursuit of Space-Based Weapons, Center for Defence Information, April 18, 2002 But because space-based weapons have been on the agenda long before September 11, and the War on Terror, the fight against terrorism is not the sole justification, though it may now add to the reasons. However, long before September 11, the concerns of the US motives for pursuing such policies have been questioned. The fear is that by seeking to create a dominant position in space, the US will become more powerful and others may be compelled to join an arms race in space. The above-mentioned CDI report also points out that The Bush administrations views were directly reflected in the 2001 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR), released Oct. 1, 2001. A key objective à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ is not only to ensure US ability to exploit space for military purposes, but also as required to deny an adversarys ability to do so, states the QDR. In this context then, space is no longer seen as the resource available for all of humanity, but another ground from which to fight geopolitical and economic battles. The New York Times reported (May 18, 2005) that there is a further push by the US Air Force for weapons in space. Any deployment of space weapons would face financial, technological, political and diplomatic hurdles, although no treaty or law bans Washington from putting weapons in space, barring weapons of mass destruction, claims the Times. Yet, this news article appears to ignore the Outer Space Treaty mentioned above, or the Prevention of Outer Space Arms Race resolution, adopted by a recorded vote of 163 in favor to none against, with 3 abstentions (the US being one of those three). If technically there are no bans on weapons, then certainly such weaponization would go against the spirit of those treaties. What the Times does mention, though, is that There has been little public debate while the Pentagon has already spent billions of dollars developing space weapons à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ preparing plans to deploy them; Air Force doctrine defines space superiority as freedom to attack as well as freedom from attack in space; In April 2005, Gen. James E. Cartwright, who leads the United States Strategic Command, told the Senate Armed Services nuclear forces subcommittee that the goal of developing space weaponry was to allow the nation to deliver an attack very quickly, with very short time lines on the planning and delivery, any place on the face of the earth.' Space superiority is not our birthright, but it is our destinyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Space superiority is our day-to-day mission. Space supremacy is our vision for the future. General Lance Lord, head of US Air Force Space Command, quoted from Air Force Seeks Bushs Approval for Space Weapons Programs, New York Times, May 18, 2005 On August 31, 2006, President Bush authorized a new national space policy, superseding the National Space Policy of September 14, 1996. The policy was based on 8 principles. One was about supporting the peaceful use of space by all nations. However, Consistent with this principle, claimed the policy, peaceful purposes would allow U.S. defense and intelligence-related activities in pursuit of national interests. Two other key principles noted the use of force, if needed to defend US interests: The United States considers space capabilities-including the ground and space segments and supporting links-vital to its national interests. Consistent with this policy, the United States will: preserve its rights, capabilities, and freedom of action in space; dissuade or deter others from either impeding those rights or developing capabilities intended to do so; take those actions necessary to protect its space capabilities; respond to interference; and deny, if necessary, adversaries the use of space capabilities hostile to U.S. national interests; The United States will oppose the development of new legal regimes or other restrictions that seek to prohibit or limit U.S. access to or use of space. Proposed arms control agreements or restrictions must not impair the rights of the United States to conduct research, development, testing, and operations or other activities in space for U.S. national interests; Unclassified National Space Policy PDF formatted document, Office of Science and Technology Policy, Executive Office of the US President, October 6, 2006 Despite its commitment to peaceful use of space as stated in its policy, just a few weeks later, the US was the lone vote against such a resolution at the UN General Assembly (and has voted against such a measure in the past), as mentioned further above. The policy therefore appears to meet the US Air Forces desire for weapons in space. The fear is that others will take a similar view (using the rhetoric of protecting its own interest in space) and encourage an arms race. For many, it may be shocking or disappointing that this might happen, but human history is littered with examples of powerful nations looking to consolidate their position to maintain their dominance which is a major reason for their wealth and success. China and Space As noted further below, China is likely to be considered a possible adversary of the US in the future, and may be one of the countries that could threaten US dominance in space, even though for now it has constantly opposed the use of space for military purposes. Countries that may either have their own power ambitions, feel threatened by the US, and/or are genuinely for peace, may all therefore have different reasons to want space used for peaceful purposes. When China recently blew up one of its aging satellites with a medium-range ballistic missile, it caused mild panic and concern amongst US, UK and other circles. The immediate fear was that China was slowly flexing its muscles and that an arms race was now underway. It was one of the first such acts since the 1980s when the Soviet Union and the US did such things. China is feared to be developing better weapons to do such things, and there was also concern that China didnt inform anyone that it was doing this. This lack of openness is certainly a worry and smacks of hypocrisy for wanting a global treaty to ban weapons in space on the one hand and then using a weapon to blow up a satellite in space later. It may indeed be that China is sincere in pursuing a global ban, but its lack of transparency has certainly diminished confidence in that idea. However, as the BBC noted, Chinas actions may have been in response to Bushs earlier declaration that they will seek to dominate space militarily and prevent a global treaty to ban weapons in space. On the issue of space weapons, the US certainly risks the charge of hypocrisy, the BBC noted. From the US perspective, the announcement of [US policy against a global treaty banning weapons in space] was clearly a response to a perceived threat from China as well as an attempt to preserve the current US advantage in space. Yet, It may be that last weeks test is an attempt by China to push back at the US and put pressure on Washington to consider negotiating a treaty to ban weapons in space. In addition, despite much of the mainstream media implying China had started an arms race, it could be thought that the US had already started it, and that unfortunately China decide to join in. Furthermore, any talk of an immediate threat from China, or one that is not too far off, would seem irrational, as clearly the US arsenal far outweighs any Chinese capability for the short-term future. Thus, any intention China has would result in self-annihilation. The concern the US has then is the longer term. US build-up in the region, fermenting alliances (e.g. India), purportedly due to the War on Terror also serves to check China in a new Cold War as Maryann Keady notes. As China and others increase in economic strength, investment in military and other such areas is going to increase. It is already recognized that China will be spending a lot more on military in coming years, but more to modernize rather than build up. However, in that process, it will likely gain a lot more capability, so people are watching with caution. India too has been investing in more space-based technologies and nuclear programs, which the US has been keen to get involved in. India, for its part has been only too happy for such assistance, even at the risk of neighboring tensions. Militarization of Space for Economic Superiority With regard to space dominance, we have it, we like it, and were going to keep it. Space is in the nations economic interest. Keith Hall, Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Space, Speech to the National Space Club in 1997. (Emphasis Added) Most wars (hot wars, trade wars, cold wars etc) throughout history have had trade and resources at their core. (See the Military Expansion part of this web site for more on that perspective.) The military superiority of past and present nations has been to defend or expand such national interests. The militarization of space by the USA, even when there has been an international agreement to use space for peaceful purposes, as mentioned above, begs the question why? On 16 January 1984, Reagan announced that Nineteen eighty-four is the year of opportunities for peace. War is Peace, as Orwell wrote in his satirical book [called 1984]. Peace through strength, peace through domination. It is clear to most of the world that the Son of Star Wars, the Nuclear Missile Defense option, is also not about defense, but it is another way for the US to exert its global hegemony. The NMD, as this history of the SDI shows us, is a political weapon to further US ends rather than enhance global security. Vijay Prashad, Shooting Stars, June 15, 2001 While the answer from US authorities is usually along the lines of defensive purposes (as with the related issues of missile defense and star wars, as also discussed on this web site, in this section), many see the domination of space as the ability to maintain, expand and enforce those policies that will serve that national interest. The US military explicitly says it wants to control space to protect its economic interests and establish superiority over the world. Several documents reveal the plans. Take Vision for 2020, a 1996 report of the US Space Command, which coordinates the use of Army, Navy, and Air Force space forces and was set up in 1985 to help institutionalize the use of space. The multicolored cover of Vision for 2020 shows a weapon shooting a laser beam from space and zapping a target below. The report opens with the following: US Space Command-dominating the space dimension of military operations to protect US interests and investment. Integrating Space Forces into warfighting capabilities across the full spectrum of conflict. A century ago, Nations built navies to protect and enhance their commercial interests by ruling the seas, the report notes. Now it is time to rule space. Karl Grossman, Master of Space, Progressive Magazine, January 2000 An Arms Race? How will the rest of the world take to being dominated from above? One doesnt have to be particularly unfriendly to the US to feel uncomfortable. More naturally hostile or suspicious countries could well feel they have been given no choice but to develop their own antisatellite weapons in an attempt to blind US satellites, even though, since the US will far outspend them, the effort would become an ever receding goal. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ It will not only make enemies where none exist, it will drive its Nato allies, already nervous and alarmed about the consequences of the ballistic missile shield plan, into a state of antipathy towards America. Jonathan Power, Space-After Titos fun it might be Rumsfelds nightmare, Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research, May 9, 2001 Additionally, the development of weapons in space risks leading to an arms race, as mentioned in the Star Wars section on this site, in discussing the development of missile defenses. Currently, as CDI points out, the threat to US space-based interests is not as much as it is made out to be: Vulnerabilities do not necessarily result in threats. In order to threaten US space assets, military or commercial, a potential adversary must have both technological capabilities and intent to use them in a hostile manner. There is little hard evidence that any other country or hostile non-state actor possesses either the technology or the intention to seriously threaten US military or commercial operations in space-nor is there much evidence of serious pursuit of space-based weapons by potentially hostile actors. Currently, the simplest ways to attack satellites and satellite-based systems involve ground-based operations against ground facilities, and disruption of computerized downlinks. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ It is obvious that the United States must ensure the integrity of its increasingly important space networks, and find ways to defense against threats to space assets. Still, there is little reason to believe that it is necessary for the US to put weapons in space to do so. Space warfare proponents are making a suspect leap in logic in arguing that space-based weapons are, or will soon be, required to protect the ability of the United States to operate freely in space. One could argue much more rationally that what is needed most urgently is to find ways to prevent computer network intrusion; to ensure redundant capabilities both at the system and subsystem level, including the ability to rapidly replace satellites on orbit; to improve security of ground facilities (perhaps moving to undergrou nd facilities); and to harden electronic components on particularly important satellites. Furthermore, the evidence of actual space weapons programs by potential adversaries is thin. Theresa Hitchens, Weapons in Space: Silver Bullet or Russian Roulette? The Policy Implications of US Pursuit of Space-Based Weapons, Center for Defence Information, April 18, 2002 However, fearful of the additional advantage, dominance and power the US will have, it is possible other nations may choose to develop their own systems to try and keep up or minimize the perceived threat. This will in turn make the US want to increase its expenditure even more, and so on, leading to an arms race, which risks leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy to justify continued expenditures. Once testing [of space weapons] begins, the need for destructive capabilities in orbit induces a mindset opposed to rational restraint. The mindset becomes unassailable if testing is completed, for then the system must be deployed since, if we have developed the capability, others will want to follow suit and rapidly will do so. Chief of Research, Colonel Daniel Smith, USA (Ret.), Space Wars, Center for Defense Information, February 2001. While the US may possibly be able to afford this, for other nations to get involved into such expenditures will be costly indeed, especially most have other pressing priorities. (It is also somewhat questionable that even the US can afford this in the long term, but the influential US military industrial complex supports this and so tax payers money will help large military contractors, as also discussed in more detail on the Star Wars page on this site.) (The star wars part of this section on this web site, also linked to from above, discusses more about the possibilities of an arms race and an impact on international relations.) China and Russia would seem two of the most likely adversaries that might engage in such a space-based arms race. However, as the Monterey Institute for International Studies in California notes, China has consistently opposed the weaponization of outer space in its official statements, and, along with Russia, has led the initiative to create an international treaty banning all weapons in space through negotiations within an ad hoc committee of the Conference on Disarmament. It could be argued that these nations are only pursuing such a course because they fear the more powerful United States getting even more powerful. This view may take hold in nations such as the US that do not look at the Chinese regime favourably (though much criticism is definitely warranted.) On the other hand, if China is going down this path for self-interest or self-preservation concerns, then by pressing for a treaty to ban weapons in space, they are doing it in a way that will prevent them from using space for their own military advantage. With backing from the United States the desires of the world community to keep space for peaceful purposes could be realized. The various technical monitoring facilities that would need to be in place to ensure compliance would likely mean any nation with desires to deceptively pursure a space militarization program could be thwarted. The US labels other nations that do not want to be part of the international system as rogue, yet one cant help wonder how the US should be labeled on this issue, then. Irans satellite: a look at the implications by Taylor Dinerman Monday, October 18, 2004 Recently, the Iranian military announced that it has successfully tested a 2000-km range missile, the Shahab 5, and the Tehran government has also said that, in April of 2005, they plan to launch the Islamic Republics first satellite. This, combined with the mounting evidence that their nuclear program is accelerating, indicates that we are headed for a major crisis next year. During the debates, both Bush and Kerry talked as if they will be able to stop Irans drive for nuclear weapons and the long-range ballistic missiles to deliver them, if not with diplomacy and sanctions, then with force. If they mean what they say, there is going to be trouble ahead. From inside Iran, a 2000-km missile will be able to hit, to the west, Greece, Turkey, parts of the Balkans, and the parts of Ukraine. To the east, it will cover all of Pakistan and major parts of India. To the south, it will not only be able to target Saudi Arabia, but Yemen, Eritrea and Djibouti, as well. To the north, not only will the nations of the Caucasus and Central Asia be within range, but major parts of Russia, as well. The capability of this weapon is far beyond what is needed for a strike against Israel. This missile and its longer range successors that are already in development are part of a major asymmetric arms buildup. The purpose of this effort is, in the first place, to safeguard the Mullahs position at home, where they are under challenge from a generation of young people who reject the Islamic revolution and the dictatorship it has created. Second, it is intended to provide an umbrella for the extension of their power into Iraq, Afghanistan and the Gulf, through the use of surrogates, such as Al Sadr and Gulbaddin Hekmatyr. If Iran can build and test a nuclear weapon, and prove that it has the capability to build and launch a satellite, even a small one, it will join a new category of states that could be referred to as mini-superpowers. Irans drive for nuclear weapons is obviously not going to be stopped because the Europeans or the Russian ask them to. The Mullahs believe that they need nuclear weapons not only to deploy against the US and Israel but also to safeguard their own regime. This does not mean that they are going to blow up one of their own cities if the locals get out of line, but it does mean that they want the prestige and the burst of nationalist pride that the Indians and Pakistanis got when their governments tested nuclear weapons in the 1990s.They may also hope that the West will fear that, if the regime is overthrown, the ensuing chaos might lead to a loose nukes situation. Under the Shah, Iran not only bought billions of dollars worth of western weapons, but also arranged for thousands of Iranian students to study science and engineering in the US and elsewhere. Many of these students stayed in the West, but thousands of others went back to Iran. Some of them, or people trained by them, are no doubt working on the Mullahs nuclear weapons and on the means to deliver them. If Iran can build and test a nuclear weapon, and prove that it has the capability to build and launch a satellite, even a small one, it will join a new category of states that could be referred to as mini-superpowers. A nation that can launch a satellite can theoretically build an ICBM. Israel and India are members of this club. Pakistan has not yet launched a satellite but has indicated that it plans to do so. Nations as diverse as Brazil, North Korea, South Korea, South Africa, and Japan all have tried, at one time, for membership. Having a satellite in orbit and a bomb in the basement gives a government options, and a certain amount of room to maneuver than states without that capability would have. During its war with Iraq, despite a larger population and greater strategic depth, Iran was nonetheless fought to a standstill, due to Saddams access to better weapons, from the USSR, France, China, Brazil and elsewhere (The US supplied less than 1% of Saddams weapons, mostly training helicopters and Chevy Blazers) and to his massive use of poison gas. The Islamic Republic learned to modify and to adapt the American and British weapons it had inherited from the Shah. The ability to keep even a small part of these systems in operation is not to be dismissed. To imagine, as some analysts do, that Iran is technologically dependent on Russia, North Korea, China, or Pakistan for its nuclear missile and satellite program is surely a mistake. The Shah was an exceptionally ambitious ruler and he laid the groundwork for Iran to develop a sophisticated and capable armaments industry. The requirements of the 1980-1987 war forced them to build on this foundation. Unless great care is taken, the Mullahs military may reserve some nasty surprises for anyone who goes against them. Fortunately, all reports indicate that the regime in place is at least as unpopular as that of the Shah during his last days. Indications of unrest are all over the Internet and even reach into the mainstream press. Sadly, this may not be enough to overthrow the Mullahs any time soon. So the US has got to begin developing some alternative plans for dealing with Iran. The US Army and Marine Corps may be fully engaged in Iraq, but the Air Force and Navy have plenty of spare capacity that could be used if diplomacy fails. Effectively targeting these forces against Irans bomb program and its supporting infrastructure is an exceptionally tough problem for the Pentagons and Centcoms Joint Planning Staff. If the US does nothing, then it is quite possible that, within a decade, Iran will have nuclear-tipped missiles that can hit not only Israel and Europe, but America itself. To counter that threat, the US will need a far more effective missile defense system than the one it has today. Only space-based boost phase interceptors, combined with a real multi-layered defense system, could hope to negate the threat. The final option is to develop and deploy space-based weapons capable of destroying Irans missiles and satellite launchers. This means accepting the weaponization of space, something that the Bush Administration seems to be trying to avoid dealing with. So the US and the West are faced with three exceptionally unpalatable choices. First, they could continue down the diplomatic path. This is currently being pursued, but since the Mullahs are obviously playing